Loss of nitrogen can result in economic loss in crop production systems due to nitrogen deficiency and yield limitation. Nitrogen is susceptible to loss from soils by a variety of mechanisms. The nitrate form of nitrogen is prone to loss by either leaching or denitrification when soils are wet. Nitrogen losses associated with wet soil conditions are common types of nitrogen loss from agricultural soils. The magnitude of nitrogen loss, and the process by which the nitrogen is lost, depends strongly on soil temperature and soil hydrology. Variations in soil temperature and hydrology within a field, due to differences in microclimate, can lead to substantial spatial variability in the amount of nitrogen that is lost within a given field.
When nitrogen loss occurs after the application of nitrogen fertilizer, a likely outcome, in the absence of any further intervention, is that the crop will suffer from nitrogen deficiency, resulting in substantial yield loss and subsequent economic loss. The yields of many crops, including corn, rice, wheat, and potatoes, dramatically increase in response to nitrogen applications throughout the vegetative stages of growth.
A traditional approach to avoiding losses in crop yield due to nitrogen deficiency is to apply an excess of nitrogen fertilizer at planting to compensate for anticipated nitrogen losses due to leaching or other mechanisms. An alternative and arguably more efficient approach to a single sizable application of nitrogen fertilizer near planting, is the practice of applying a low nitrogen fertilizer rate at planting, which may be fully or partially corrected by an additional nitrogen application as needed in midseason. A corn producer, for example, may apply a low nitrogen rate near planting, then apply additional nitrogen through a pivot irrigation system at growth stage V9 or later (Ritchie et al. 1993). Because the need for nitrogen is often spatially variable, accurate spatial diagnosis of nitrogen status can reduce the over-application of fertilizer, groundwater contamination, and can also increase nitrogen use efficiency, resulting in reduced operating costs. Thus, applying nitrogen to the growing crop, referred to in the art as rescue nitrogen application, is an effective way to respond to loss of fertilizer nitrogen.
Rescue nitrogen applications for corn and other crops are typically more expensive than primary nitrogen applications due to the height of the crops at the time the rescue nitrogen is applied, which usually create a need for specialized high-clearance equipment or aerial applications of nitrogen. The availability of equipment for high-clearance or aerial applications is often limited, meaning that it takes considerable effort on the part of a corn producer to arrange for these nitrogen applications. Balancing the cost and inconvenience of rescue nitrogen application against the economic impact of anticipated yield loss would help producers to make sound decisions about whether to proceed with rescue nitrogen applications.
Traditional technologies and methods for measuring leaching and denitrification losses of nitrogen are difficult and expensive, which limit a producer's ability to predict nitrogen loss and to utilize rescue nitrogen fertilization in order to minimize the potential yield loss for a particular field or section of a field. The soil may be periodically tested for nitrogen content at different depths and locations throughout the fields of a farm. Crop information may also be obtained using an apparatus in which the light with a wavelength related to crop nitrogen content is irradiated on a leaf blade of the crop and based on the reflectivity of the leaf at this wavelength of light, the leaf blade nitrogen content is measured with high precision. However, each of these techniques of monitoring soil and crop nitrogen content are highly localized. In order to determine the crop information accurately for the overall field, as well as to obtain an accurate mapping of the spatial variation of the crop information, numerous repeats of the minute measurements described above are required. Obtaining crop information in this manner is time-consuming, labor intensive, expensive, and may not supply the information in time for the farmer to apply rescue nitrogen effectively.
The increasing availability of commercial remote-sensing services tailored to the needs of agriculture offers new opportunities to develop and improve rescue nitrogen management strategies. Several studies have evaluated remote sensing techniques to determine corn nitrogen status during the growing season and have determined that the reflectance of corn near the 550 nm green visible band is significantly correlated with leaf nitrogen concentration or other variables related to crop nitrogen status, and therefore can be used to detect nitrogen deficiencies in crop canopy. Particularly, nitrogen-deficient corn reflects more visible light than nitrogen-sufficient corn, which suggests that light reflectance can be quantitatively related to the amount of nitrogen stress experienced by the crop.
The specific relationship between crop reflectivity and nitrogen status has been developed to some extent, but no specific or general relationships for predicting nitrogen loss or yield loss from remotely sensed data have been developed. To date, this relationship has been determined by adding increasing quantities of nitrogen to a system that is nitrogen-limited. For application to nitrogen loss situations, it is more appropriate to define the relationship between color, nitrogen stress, and yield in the context of a fully fertilized crop that experiences a range of nitrogen losses. The resulting relationship between nitrogen stress (as measured by crop color) and yield loss most directly addresses the question that is most salient to the producer: does it make good business sense to apply rescue nitrogen fertilization to my nitrogen-stressed crops, or does the cost of fertilization outweigh the gain in crop yield?
Remote sensing using aerial and satellite photography as well as ground-based sensors have been used to determine several parameters related to the successful cultivation of crops, including soil nutrient content, chlorophyll content of crop leaves, and nitrogen content of crop leaves. The factors measured using remote sensing are correlated with the overall health and nutrient status of the crops. In general, these methods rely on variations in the reflectivity of the soil or the crop canopy to selected wavelengths of light falling within the visible and the near-infrared spectrum. Soil nitrogen content is correlated with the soil's reflectivity of infrared light, and crop nitrogen content is associated with increased reflectivity of the leaves in the crop canopy to visible light. This increased reflectance of nitrogen-rich plant leaves is most pronounced within the green wavelengths of the visible light spectrum.
Most cameras used for the remote sensing of crops record a three-spectral image combining either the near infrared, red, and green wavelengths or the red, green, and blue wavelengths. Remote sensing methodologies used for the determination of crop nitrogen status generally process the intensity of the colors, in particular the green contained in each pixel of a digital image of a field, and determines the variation in the intensity of each color. In order to minimize the confounding effects of spatial and temporal variations in camera angle, altitude, camera focal length, and ambient lighting, many remote sensing methods determine changes in pixel colors relative to the colors of other pixels in the field. By combining the relative intensity of green in each pixel with measured coordinates that determine the spatial distribution of the pixels, a relative greenness map may be developed.
Previous methods have used the relative greenness map to make determinations about the health of the crops, and in some cases may determine an optimal nitrogen fertilization rate that results in crops that are supplied with exactly the amount of supplemental nitrogen necessary to optimize crop health and yield. However, optimizing the growth and harvest of the crops is only half of the information necessary for a producer to manage the growth and care of crops. When managing the production of crops, the producer must constantly weigh the cost of additional nitrogen fertilization against the potential increase in revenue from the sale of the additional crop yield. To date, current field management methodologies that utilize remote sensing lack the capability to determine the impact of variations in the health and nutritional status of crop plants on the crop yield.
At the present time, there exists an unmet need to determine the impact of crop nutrient status on the resulting crop yield using remote sensing technology such as aerial photographs. The results of this method would make it possible for the producer to manage the nitrogen supplementation of the crops informed by the economic impact of any nitrogen deficiency on crop yield.